American Foederati

“I say, therefore, that the arms with which a prince defends his state are either his own, or they are mercenaries, auxiliaries, or mixed. Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous; and if one holds his state based on these arms, he will stand neither firm nor safe; for they are disunited, ambitious, and without discipline, unfaithful, valiant before friends, cowardly before enemies; they have neither the fear of God nor fidelity to men, and destruction is deferred only so long as the attack is; for in peace one is robbed by them, and in war by the enemy.” - Niccolò Machiavelli

There has been significant discussion surrounding the United States Military's struggle to meet recruitment goals in recent times. In 2022, the U.S. Army fell short of its recruiting target by approximately 15,000 soldiers, marking a 25% deficit. Concurrently, both the Navy and Airforce failed to meet their recruitment goals by 10%. Despite attempts to address the recruitment crisis by lowering standards and increasing benefits, 2024 is projected to be the military's worst recruiting year since 1945.

The latest plan to increase military recruitment the Courage to Serve Act is a bipartisan bill aimed at boosting military readiness by offering illegal immigrants an expedited path to citizenship in exchange for military service. If you think it’s a bad idea, you're not wrong, just ask our historical doppelganger, Rome.

During the later stages of her existence Rome, much like the United States, struggled to motivate her citizens to join the military. The difficulty in recruiting Roman citizens stemmed from years of poor governance and exploitation. Economic challenges, heavy taxation, social and political instability eroded any sense of civic duty and loyalty among Roman citizens.

Declining agricultural production and hyperinflation sent the economy into decline which played a pivotal role in shaping the reluctance of Roman citizens to engage in military service. Widespread poverty gripped the population, discouraging individuals from pursuing a career in the military, which seemed less appealing compared to potential economic opportunities in alternative fields.

To cope with economic challenges and fund military campaigns, the Roman government imposed heavy taxes on the population, which further exacerbated the economic difficulties faced by her citizens. Because the taxation policies disproportionately affected the lower and middle classes, which traditionally provided a significant portion of the Roman military recruitment. This only added to economic burden that stifled the population, an as a result the willingness and ability of individuals from these classes to enlist in the military faltered.

To make matters worse Rome began to cut what few incentives remained for military service. The traditional practice of distributing land to retired soldiers, known as the ager publicus, was slowly removed. The erosion of this long-standing reward system weakened the allure of military service, as individuals were no longer guaranteed land for their dedication and sacrifice. The removal of ager publicus in addition to the political instability and frequent leadership changes during the later periods of the Roman Empire created a sense of disillusionment among citizens, that not only saw Romans avoid military service but the abdication of civic duty more broadly.

Despite Rome's struggles to recruit enough soldiers from its citizenry, the persistent external threats and invasions by various barbarian groups necessitated a substantial military force. The demand for such a force consistently outstripped the number of Romans willing to enlist voluntarily. The challenging geopolitical landscape and frequent incursions by barbarian groups placed an enduring strain on Rome that required robust military presence, placing further strain on the tension between the demand for defense and the supply of willing volunteers.

To address the shortage, the Roman army turned to Foederati (non-Roman soldiers and mercenaries) to bolster the legions. As the Roman military became increasingly dependent on the Foederati system, they began offering various incentives—often at the expense of Roman citizens—in exchange for military service. One primary incentive was the allocation of land within the borders of the Roman Empire, enabling soldiers to farm and establish communities. Non-Roman soldiers were frequently granted special legal status within the Empire, exempting them from certain taxes and legal obligations that applied to Roman citizens.

The Foederati system emerged as a response to Rome's inability to mobilize its citizens for the Empire. However, the heightened reliance on mercenaries altered the face of the Roman military. Once the most powerful Romanizing force globally, the army rapidly took on the identity of its new members. German terminology and customs, such as the barritus, an old German battle cry, became widespread. Contemporary writings indicate that the German term "barbarus" (barbarian) and the Latin "miles" (soldier) began to be used interchangeably. This compositional shift further distanced Roman citizens from military institutions, as they felt less connected to an army that was becoming less Roman. The reliance on mercenaries created a negative feedback loop: the more Rome depended on mercenaries, the more it discouraged citizens from joining, and the fewer citizens joined, the more Rome relied on mercenaries.

The introduction of foreign troops was intended to address Rome's immediate military and economic challenges; however, in reality, it introduced several long-term issues that played a substantial role in the decline of the Western Roman Empire.

As the Foederati system grew, it increased the number of ethnic and cultural groups within Roman society, making it difficult to maintain a cohesive identity and unity. This led to increased internal divisions that undermined the empire's stability. The distribution of land to Foederati also intensified strain on the local Roman population, sparking resource competition and disputes over land ownership. The economic struggles that Rome was already facing were aggravated under the added weight of supporting the expansive military structure, and the Foederati.

While the Foederati were undeniably exceptional warriors, their allegiance to the empire waned over time. Armed with knowledge of Roman military tactics, a significant number of the Foederati ultimately turned against Rome.

By the late 4th century, several Germanic Foederati, including Vandals, Alans, and Suebi, turned against the Roman Empire. In 378 AD, the Visigoths, led by Fritigern, revolted due to mistreatment and food shortages, resulting in a significant defeat for the Romans and the death of the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens. Subsequently, in 410 AD, Alaric, leader of the Visigoths and a former member of the Roman army, besieged and successfully sacked Rome. The culmination of these events occurred in 455 AD when the Vandals, under the leadership of Genseric, once again sacked the city of Rome.

These events dealt severe blows to the prestige and stability of the Western Roman Empire, significantly contributing to its decline. While the Foederati system initially addressed immediate needs, it ultimately led to internal strife, weakened the core of the Roman military, and facilitated external invasions.

Rome's experience is not unique; numerous empires throughout history have grappled with the pitfalls of relying on mercenaries or foreign troops. In the First Punic War (264–241 BC), Carthage encountered challenges in maintaining and compensating its mercenary forces, ultimately contributing to its defeat by at the hands of Rome. The Byzantine Empire, particularly during later periods, extensively employed foreign mercenaries, including the Varangians and troops from various regions. While effective in certain instances, the loyalty of mercenaries proved unpredictable, resulting in many instances of betrayal.

The Ottoman Empire, at different points in its history, similarly turned to mercenaries and soldiers from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. The Janissaries, an elite Ottoman infantry comprised of Christian slaves converted to Islam, played a pivotal role in the empire's military. However, concerns about their loyalty arose over time, prompting reforms and ultimately leading to their dissolution in the early 19th century.

“…there is no loyalty or inducement to keep them on the field apart from the little they are paid . . . [which] is not enough to make them want to die for you." - Niccolo Machiavelli

The most famous critic of mercenary armies Niccolò Machiavelli saw the danger firsthand. During the Renaissance, several Italian city-states, such as Florence and Venice, relied on mercenary companies, known as condottieri, for their military needs. The shifting loyalties of these mercenary captains often led to complex and unpredictable political dynamics. It was this experience that led him to write extensively on the dangers of the reliance on mercenaries. He strongly advises rulers to avoid the use of mercenaries, since they prioritize their own wellbeing over the interests of the prince. According to Machiavelli, “ruin is the inevitable result of a prince's continued dependence on mercenaries.”

History is clear on the subject of mercenary armies; they are neither loyal nor reliable. Despite this the U.S. seems determined to try and buy its way back to military prominence. While the similarities between Rome and American are hard to ignore one difference stands out: Rome had something to offer, something valuable enough to make the Foederati temporarily functional. The U.S. as far as I can tell does not. So, the question arises: What benefit does citizenship in the U.S. confer that illegal immigrants do not already possess? If anything, one could argue that citizenship is a downgrade with its added tax burden and legal obligations. With little to offer it seems more likely that there will be no Foederati system in America. After all, who would buy a cow they can milk for free?

-TJS